home » Megaphone » Union of Utrecht (1579). Union of Utrecht What is the historical significance of the Union of Utrecht

Union of Utrecht (1579). Union of Utrecht What is the historical significance of the Union of Utrecht

a military-political alliance of first five and then seven provinces (Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Geldern, Overijssel, Friesland, Groningen) of the Northern Netherlands, concluded on January 23, 1579 in Utrecht against Spain, which was trying to restore domination in the Netherlands, actually lost during the Dutch bourgeois revolution of the 16th century (See Dutch bourgeois revolution of the 16th century) , and against the internal feudal-Catholic reaction (in response to the conclusion of the counter-revolutionary Union of Arras (see Union of Arras) by the southern provinces). Articles by W. u. provided for the joint conduct of a revolutionary war, the indissolubility of the union, the conduct of a common foreign policy, the creation of a common army, a single monetary system. Without formally announcing the deposition of the Spanish king, W. at. at the same time, it did not leave room for real royal power. Provided for a federal political structure. Conclusion W. at. laid the foundation for the independent state existence of the Republic of the United Provinces (many cities in Flanders and Brabant also joined the U.A., but in the 1880's they were conquered by Spanish troops).

- ...
Historical Dictionary
- in the sense of state law, such a situation in which two free states agree to have a common monarch ...
Cossack dictionary-reference
- the forced fusion of the Orthodox and Catholic religions, imposed by Catholics, with the preservation of some Orthodox rituals, but with submission to the Pope ...
Orthodox encyclopedic dictionary
- Dutch Catholic Church. In 1724 she separated from Catholicism and later joined the Old Catholics ...
Religious terms
- English. union; German Union. 1. Close union of several states. 2 ...
Encyclopedia of Sociology
- 1. a kind of association of states, which is not currently found 2. permanent international organizations of technical, informational, administrative, etc. character ...
Big Dictionary of Economics
- 1) unification, union of states: the so-called. personal union - under the rule of one monarch; real union - on the basis of a treaty or unilateral act of a stronger state ...
Political science. Dictionary.
- a military-political alliance of the northern provinces of the Netherlands, concluded against Spain, which was striving to restore its dominance ...
Political science. Dictionary.
- military-political ...
- church. organization centered on netherl. Utrecht, formed in 1723 as Jansenist, and from the 70s. 19th century which is an offshoot of Old Catholicism ...
Soviet Historical Encyclopedia
- 1) union, association, community of states, territories; a kind of complex state. Personal U. is the union of two or more states under the authority of a single head of state ...
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Economics and Law
- in the Kingdom of the Netherlands; occupies a space of 1384 sq. km, with a population of 232,316 people, which is 167 people. for 1 sq. km. 49% of the entire surface is covered with meadows, 9.9% are forests, 19% are fields, 5.4% are water and swamps ...
- a branch of the Catholic Church. The apostolic vicars in Utrecht have long opposed Jesuit propaganda and were often accused of Jansenism because of this ...
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron
- a military-political alliance of first five and then seven provinces of the Northern Netherlands, concluded on January 23, 1579 in Utrecht against Spain, which was trying to restore dominance in the Netherlands, which had actually been lost ...
Great Soviet Encyclopedia
- formalized the union of the seven northern provinces of the Netherlands historical. Imprisoned in 1579 in Utrecht during the Dutch Revolution, directed against Spain and the internal feudal-Catholic reaction ...
Big encyclopedic dictionary
- ...
Spelling dictionary of the Russian language

"Utrecht Union" in books

Baltic union

From the author's book

Baltic Union I decided that it was much more important to engage in creative work, and not the newspaper war, although it touched on very serious and principled issues. Against the decentralist aspirations of Moscow and Berlin in relation to Central Europe, I began

Shattered union

From the book War and Peace by Ivan the Terrible the author Tyurin Alexander

The destroyed union The large-scale Moscow conspiracy of Chelyadnin and Staritsky was associated with the wealthy higher clergy and the trade nobility of Novgorod and Pskov, whose material interests suffered because of the military actions that had been going on for 9 years in their immediate vicinity.

Church union

From the book Ivan III the author Skrynnikov Ruslan Grigorievich

Church Union In 1431, the metropolitan see in Kiev was taken by the Smolensk bishop Gerasim, a protege of the Lithuanian prince Svidrigailo. In Lithuania, civil strife raged, and in 1435 the Lithuanian prince ordered to burn Gerasim at the stake for some kind of "treason."

Union of Lublin

From the book The Course of Russian History (Lectures XXXIII-LXI) the author Klyuchevsky Vasily Osipovich

Union of Lublin The political influence of Poland on Lithuania, bringing the Lithuanian-Russian state system closer to the Polish one, in the 15th and first half of the 16th century. somehow supported the dynastic union of both states, which had separate

Florentine union

From the book Knight at the Crossroads: Feudal War in Russia in the 15th century. the author Zimin Alexander Alexandrovich

Union of Florence For about five years, the compromise reached in 1436 was preserved. These years were filled with the preparation of the parties for further confrontation. It seemed to Vasily Vasilyevich that he had sacrificed too much, and the allies obviously counted on

Kalmar Union

From the book History of the Middle Ages. Volume 1 [In two volumes. Edited by S. D. Skazkin] the author Skazkin Sergey Danilovich

Union of Kalmar The Danish and Swedish possessions were under the threat of rejection by the North German princes. Despite the conflicts that have repeatedly flared up between the Scandinavian states, in the face of the danger that threatened from the German princes and the Hansa,

10. ZAPOROZHOTS AND UNIA

From the book Cossacks. The history of free Russia the author Shambarov Valery Evgenievich

10. ZAPOROZHTSY AND UNIA The two Slavic powers that developed in Eastern Europe, Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, were as different as heaven and earth. One was an Orthodox monarchy, where the strong power of the tsar was based on the foundations of Orthodoxy and was supplemented by wide zemstvo self-government

Union of Lyons

From the book History of the Byzantine Empire. T.2 the author Vasiliev Alexander Alexandrovich

Union of Lyons The popes of the second half of the 13th century in their eastern policy did not want a repetition of the Fourth Crusade, which, as you know, did not solve the question of Greek schism that was so important for the pope and removed from the next queue another important issue for the pope about the crusade.

2. Utrecht painting

From the book History of Art of All Times and Nations. Volume 3 [Art of the XVI-XIX centuries] author Wöhrman Karl

2. Utrecht painting Utrecht occupies a special place in the history of Dutch painting of the 17th century, being a predominantly Catholic city and, accordingly, under strong Italian influence. The most obscure figures in Utrecht were Abraham Bloomart, Gillies

Union

From the book Encyclopedic Dictionary (T-F) author Brockhaus F.A.

Union Union (state law). - By U. we mean such a union of states in which two different states have a common monarch. By its very essence, U. is conceivable, therefore, only between monarchical states. By the nature of the connection that exists between

Union of Utrecht

From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (UT) of the author TSB

Union

From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (UN) of the author TSB

Union

From the book Essays on the History of the Russian Church. Volume I the author

Utrecht Declaration of 1889.

From the book Theological Encyclopedic Dictionary by Elwell Walter

Utrecht Declaration of 1889. The official statement of the five Old Catholic bishops, approved in 1897 as the doctrinal platform of the Old Catholic churches. Utrecht Declaration Declares Allegiance to True Catholicism - the Doctrine

Union

From the book Essays on the History of the Russian Church. Volume 1 the author Anton Kartashev

Union The idea of union, as we have already seen, was at the heart of the very enterprise of the Lithuanian government - to separate the Kiev Metropolitanate from Moscow. Union became a chronic disease of the hierarchy of the Western Russian Church for reasons of political convenience and all sorts of benefits. The idea of union is

Senoria Overijssel

Brabant (Duchy)

Flanders (county)

Tournai (city)

Valenciennes

Story

The nobility of the southern provinces opposed the spread of Protestantism in the territories under their control, and artisans feared possible losses, since their workshops worked thanks to the Spanish supply of raw materials. All this served as a decision on the signing of the Aras Union. In opposition to them, representatives of the counties and cities of the northern provinces call a meeting and sign the Utrecht Union. Its main points were: the creation of a common army, the maintenance of a common treasury and a meeting of the joint government. Initially, the union included 5 provinces: Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Geldern, Groningen; later they were joined by Overijssel (February 4, 1579) and Friesland (in March of the same year). The union provided for the creation of a common financial system, a unified army, and a coordinated foreign policy.

Create a contract

It follows from the text of the document that it was more military in nature than political. In view of the systematic attacks by Spanish troops on Dutch cities and settlements, representatives of many provinces decided to unite in a military bloc to jointly confront the threat. The provincial stadtholders, deputies and judges have developed a legal document that, in fact, prevented the secession from the Holy Roman Empire for other provinces. They did not leave aside the issues of an economic and religious nature, the regulation of which was directly spelled out in the articles of the agreement. At the moment, the document is freely available, in the amount of 109 scanned pages, which are stored in the National Archives of the city of The Hague. The parties who signed the contract:

Holland (county);
County of Zealand;
Senoria Utrecht;
Geldern (Duchy);
Senoria Overijssel;
Brabant (Duchy)
Flanders (county);
Tournai (city);
Valenciennes

Document

Preamble

The introductory part of the paper describes the reasons that prompted delegates from many states to come together and make this decision. These include: the constant threat from the Spanish troops, their numerous attacks on Dutch cities and settlements, the direct threat of the expansion of the conflict front to the north. It points to a direct violation of the provisions of the Ghent pacification, which will lead to the establishment of a tyrannical regime of the Spaniards, persecution on religious grounds, slavery for the Dutch. After that, the representatives of Holland, Zeeland, Senoria Utrecht, Geldern, Groningen, Friesland, Drenthe, Overijssel, Brabant, Flanders, Tournai, Valenciennes decided to unite for the purpose of joint defense, but not secession from the Habsburg Netherlands.

Article I

The aforementioned provinces retain the right to form unions, confederations, agreements on a voluntary basis. Each of these provinces is forbidden to secede from the union, break off relations, divide any territory or include it in a will, donate, exchange, sell. Also, the residents of these provinces are guaranteed the preservation of rights, freedoms, privileges, benefits, local customs. All parties to the agreement must make every effort to respect, strengthen, preserve and protect these rules, statutes and customs by all means possible. It is assumed that differences that exist at the moment or may arise in the future between the specified provinces, members of this union or residents are resolved through ordinary courts, arbitration, and friendly agreements. Other provinces cannot intervene in these disputes until their help is needed to administer justice or enforce the law.

Article II

The Union and the Confederation protect against attempts to restore Catholicism under the pretext of the Ghent pacification, the elimination of any innovations introduced since 1558 or attempts to overthrow the current Utrecht Union.

Article III

The aforementioned provinces are obliged to help each other in the event of aggression against them by all foreign and local rulers, princes, cities or their inhabitants, who seek in a group or individually to harm or insult or wage war against them. To make a decision on the provision of joint assistance, the members of the agreement must fully own the current situation.

Article IV

A separate subject of the agreement concerns the provision of provinces, cities, border settlements and their inhabitants with more effective measures against any violence, where it is deemed necessary. Any of the provinces must be fortified and provided at the expense of cities or provinces where they are located on one half and on the other half at the expense of the members of the union. The construction of new fortresses in the aforementioned provinces, rebuilding or demolition is carried out at the expense of all provinces if it is deemed appropriate.

Article V

To cover the costs of providing protection and in the cases described above, it is envisaged that every three months or at another convenient time, taxes will be raised in all provinces on: leasing, wine and beer brewed domestically and abroad, grinding corn and grain, salt, gold, silver, silk and woolen fabrics, livestock and cultivated land, slaughter of animals, horses, oxen, when selling / exchanging goods, weighing on public scales, as well as all other goods. In accordance with the agreement, the issue of deducting from income from the possessions of His Royal Majesty, which is also used for these purposes, was developed and resolved.

Article VI

These revenues should be increased or decreased only by unanimous decision, in accordance with the requirements of the situation. They will only be used for joint defense and general spending purposes, but should not be sent for any other use.

Article IX

As for an armistice or peace treaty, the beginning of a war, an increase in any tax or contribution, they cannot be accepted except by the general agreement of the Council and the indicated provinces. But, in other issues that affect the format of the Confederation, the results and consequences of its action - decisions are made in accordance with the opinion and votes of the majority of the delegates of the provinces included in this Union, calculated in accordance with the existing practice of the States General. However, these measures are temporary until other decisions are taken by the Allies. (The word "allies" is used for members of the Union throughout the document).

In cases where the provinces cannot agree on a truce, peace, war or taxation, then these differences will be referred to and presented by the stadtholders, who are obliged to reach an agreement with the parties or make their own decision, which they consider correct. It should be understood that if the stadtholders themselves cannot reach agreement on such issues, then they must invite disinterested persons or MPs of their own choosing. Thus, the parties and the staplers must reach an agreement and make a decision.

Article X

None of the above provinces, cities or their members may form any confederations or alliances with any neighboring rulers or countries, without the consent of the United Provinces and allies.

Article XI

It was decided that if any neighboring princes, nobles, landowners or cities wish to join the above provinces and enter this confederation, they can only be adopted by general advice and with the consent of all provinces.

Article XII

The aforementioned provinces are obliged to adhere to the same appraised value of coins, the rate of exchange in accordance with such regulations, which, therefore, must be adopted at the earliest opportunity, and cannot be changed without general agreement.

Article XIII

Regarding the issue of religion, the provinces of Holland and Zeeland act according to their own discretion, and in other provinces this union must adhere to the rules established in the religious world, drawn up by Archduke Matthias, the governor and captain general of these countries, taking into account the recommendations of the Council of State and the States General. or to establish such general or special rules on this matter, which will be most suitable for the peace and well-being of provinces, cities and individuals, the safety of property and the rights of every person, be it a clergyman or layman. No other province should be allowed to interfere or create difficulties so that every person remains free in his religion and no one can be persecuted or persecuted because of his religion, as stipulated in the Ghent pacification.

Article XVIII

A separate subject of the agreement concerns the fact that none of the United Provinces, cities or their members will be subject to any tax, troop passage fees or other burdens that will be to the detriment of other provinces, with the exception of mutual consent, and none of the allies cannot be taxed more than the inhabitants in the province itself.

Article XXIV

In order to ensure a more precise implementation of the treaty, the states of the agalters from the indicated provinces, who are currently authorized, and their successors, as well as judges and chief officials from each province, city and their representatives, are required to take an oath of upholding and maintaining this union and the Confederation, and every article in it.

Article XXV

In the same way, the provisions must be adopted by the civil guards, fraternities and legal entities in any cities and places included in this Union.

Consequences

The signing of the Aras and Utrecht unions led to the fact that the country was divided into two opposing camps. The Northern and Southern Provinces became bitter rivals in the field of economy, religion and culture. The loss by the Spanish Empire of influence over a group of provinces led to an increase in the military contingent and concentration at the borders of the provinces of Zeeland and Brabant. William I of Orange did not immediately support the creation of the Utrecht Union, because he realized that the state was disintegrating and could only be stopped by uniting the northern and southern provinces. Finally, the failure of this plan became apparent by the spring, and in May 1579 he signed the Utrecht Agreement. In June 1580, Philip II issues a decree "Ban and Edict" in which William I of Orange is declared the main enemy, rebel, villain. In fact, the Spanish king outlawed it. In response, on July 26, 1581, the General States of the Northern Provinces issued an Act of Oath Abdication, which forever left the jurisdiction of the Spanish crown. Realizing that internal resources for the military struggle are not enough, the Prince of Orange turns to France and England for help. Considering it was William I of Orange as the inspirer and the culprit of the uprising in the northern provinces, Philip II assigns a reward of 25 thousand golden crowns for his murder. Subsequently, the hitman made a successful assassination attempt on the Prince of Orange on July 10, 1584. The offensive continued on the northern provinces of the Spanish troops under the command of Alessandra Farnese, which would be stopped only thanks to the outstanding commander - Moritz of Orange.

Write a review on the article "Union of Utrecht"

Notes (edit)

Excerpt from the Union of Utrecht

On the third day after Kutuzov's report, a landowner from Moscow arrived in St. Petersburg, and the news of the surrender of Moscow to the French spread throughout the city. It was terrible! What was the position of the sovereign! Kutuzov was a traitor, and Prince Vasily, during the visites de condoleance [visits of condolence] on the occasion of the death of his daughter, which he received, spoke of Kutuzov, whom he had previously praised (he was forgiven in sorrow to forget what he had said before), he said, that nothing else could be expected from a blind and depraved old man.
- I am only surprised how it was possible to entrust such a person with the fate of Russia.
While this news was still unofficial, one could still doubt it, but the next day the following report came from Count Rostopchin:
“The adjutant of Prince Kutuzov brought me a letter, in which he demands from me police officers to escort the army to the Ryazan road. He says he is leaving Moscow with regret. Sovereign! Kutuzov's deed decides the lot of the capital and your empire. Russia will shudder upon learning of the surrender of the city where the greatness of Russia is concentrated, where the ashes of your ancestors are. I will follow the army. I took everything out, all I have to do is cry about the fate of my fatherland. "
Having received this report, the sovereign sent the following rescript to Kutuzov with Prince Volkonsky:
“Prince Mikhail Ilarionovich! Since August 29, I have not received any reports from you. Meanwhile, on September 1, through Yaroslavl, from the Moscow commander-in-chief, I received the sad news that you decided to leave Moscow with the army. You yourself can imagine the effect this news made on me, and your silence aggravates my surprise. I am sending with this General Adjutant Prince Volkonsky in order to learn from you about the position of the army and about the reasons that prompted you to such a sad resolve. "

Nine days after the abandonment of Moscow, a messenger from Kutuzov arrived in St. Petersburg with the official news of the abandonment of Moscow. This messenger was a Frenchman Michaud, who did not know Russian, but quoique etranger, Busse de c? Ur et d "ame, [though a foreigner, but Russian at heart,] as he himself said to himself.
The Emperor immediately received the messenger in his office, in the palace of Kamenny Island. Michaud, who had never seen Moscow before the campaign and who did not know Russian, felt all the same moved when he appeared before notre tres gracieux souverain [our most merciful ruler] (as he wrote) with the news of the Moscow fire, dont les flammes eclairaient sa route [whose flames lit up his path].
Although the source of the chagrin [grief] of Mr. Michaud was supposed to be different from the one from which the grief of the Russian people flowed, Michaud had such a sad face when he was introduced into the sovereign's office that the sovereign immediately asked him:
- M "apportez vous de tristes nouvelles, colonel? [What news have you brought me? Bad news, Colonel?]
- Bien tristes, sire, - answered Michaud, lowering his eyes with a sigh, - l "abandon de Moscou. [Very bad, your majesty, abandonment of Moscow.]
- Aurait on livre mon ancienne capitale sans se battre? [Have they really betrayed my ancient capital without a battle?] - suddenly flaring up, the sovereign said quickly.
Michaud respectfully conveyed what he was ordered to transfer from Kutuzov - precisely that it was not possible to fight near Moscow and that, since there was only one choice - to lose the army and Moscow or Moscow alone, the field marshal had to choose the latter.
The Emperor listened in silence, without looking at Michaud.
- L "ennemi est il en ville? [Has the enemy entered the city?]" He asked.
- Oui, sire, et elle est en cendres a l "heure qu" il est. Je l "ai laissee toute en flammes, [Yes, your majesty, and he is turned into a conflagration at the present time. I left him in the flames.] - Michaud said resolutely; but, looking at the emperor, Michaud was horrified at what he had done. The Tsar began to breathe heavily and quickly, his lower lip trembled, and his beautiful blue eyes instantly moistened with tears.
But this only lasted one minute. The Emperor suddenly frowned, as if condemning himself for his weakness. And, raising his head, he addressed Michaud in a firm voice.
- Je vois, colonel, par tout ce qui nous arrive, - he said, - que la providence exige de grands sacrifices de nous ... Je suis pret a me soumettre a toutes ses volontes; mais dites moi, Michaud, comment avez vous laisse l "armee, en voyant ainsi, sans coup ferir abandonner mon ancienne capitale? N" avez vous pas apercu du decouragement? Providence requires great sacrifices from us ... I am ready to submit to his will; but tell me, Michaud, how did you leave the army that left my ancient capital without a fight? Have you noticed a discouragement in her?]
Seeing the calmness of his tres gracieux souverain, Michaud also calmed down, but he had not yet had time to prepare an answer to the direct, essential question of the sovereign, which demanded a direct answer.
- Sire, me permettrez vous de vous parler franchement en loyal militaire? [Sovereign, will you allow me to speak frankly, as befits a real warrior?] - he said to gain time.
- Colonel, je l "exige toujours, - said the emperor. - Ne me cachez rien, je veux savoir absolument ce qu" il en est. [Colonel, I always demand this ... Don't hide anything, I certainly want to know the whole truth.]
- Sire! - said Michaud with a thin, barely perceptible smile on his lips, having managed to prepare his answer in the form of a light and respectful jeu de mots [puns]. - Sire! j "ai laisse toute l" armee depuis les chefs jusqu "au dernier soldat, sans exception, dans une crainte epouvantable, effrayante ... [Sovereign! fear ...]
- Comment ca? - the sovereign interrupted with a stern frown. - Mes Russes se laisseront ils abattre par le malheur ... Jamais! .. [How so? Can my Russians be discouraged before failure ... Never! ..]
This was just what Michaud was waiting for to insert his pun.
“Sire,” he said with a respectful playfulness of expression, “ils craignent seulement que Votre Majeste par bonte de c? Ur ne se laisse persuader de faire la paix. Ils brulent de combattre, - said the representative of the Russian people, - et de prouver a Votre Majeste par le sacrifice de leur vie, combien ils lui sont devoues ... ... They are eager to fight again and to prove to your Majesty with the sacrifice of their lives how devoted they are to you ...]
- Ah! - The sovereign said calmly and with a gentle gleam of eyes, striking Michaud on the shoulder. - Vous me tranquillisez, colonel. [A! You comfort me, Colonel.]
The Emperor, bowing his head, was silent for some time.
- Eh bien, retournez al "armee, [Well, then return to the army.] - he said, straightening up to his full height and addressing Michaud with an affectionate and majestic gesture, - et dites a nos braves, dites a tous mes bons sujets partout ou vous passerez, que quand je n "aurais plus aucun soldat, je me mettrai moi meme, a la tete de ma chere noblesse, de mes bons paysans et j" userai ainsi jusqu "a la derniere ressource de mon empire. Il m "en offre encore plus que mes ennemis ne pensent," said the sovereign, more and more inspired. "Mais si jamais il fut ecrit dans les decrets de la divine providence," he said, raising his beautiful, meek and brilliant feeling eyes to the sky, - que ma dinastie dut cesser de rogner sur le trone de mes ancetres, alors, apres avoir epuise tous les moyens qui sont en mon pouvoir, je me laisserai croitre la barbe jusqu "ici (the sovereign showed his hand to half of his chest) , et j "irai manger des pommes de terre avec le dernier de mes paysans plutot, que de signer la honte de ma patrie et de ma chere nation, dont je sais apprecier les sacrifices! .. [Tell our brave men, tell all my subjects , wherever you go, that when I no longer have a single soldier, I myself will become the head of my kind nobles and good men and thus exhaust the last means of my state. They are more than my enemies think ... But if divine providence was destined m, so that our dynasty ceases to reign on the throne of my ancestors, then, having exhausted all the means that are in my hands, I will still loose my beard and would rather go eat one potato with the last of my peasants than dare to sign the shame of my homeland and my dear people whose sacrifices I can appreciate! ..] Having said these words in an agitated voice, the emperor suddenly turned, as if wishing to hide from Michaud the tears that had come to his eyes, and walked into the depths of his office. After standing there for a few moments, he returned with large steps to Michaud and with a strong gesture squeezed his hand below the elbow. The beautiful, meek face of the sovereign flushed, and his eyes burned with a gleam of determination and anger.
- Colonel Michaud, n "oubliez pas ce que je vous dis ici; peut etre qu" un jour nous nous le rappellerons avec plaisir ... Napoleon ou moi, "said the emperor, touching his chest. - Nous ne pouvons plus regner ensemble. J "ai appris a le connaitre, il ne me trompera plus ... [Colonel Michaud, do not forget what I told you here; maybe someday we will remember this with pleasure ... Napoleon or I ... We can no longer reign together. I recognized him now, and he will no longer deceive me ...] - And the emperor, frowning, fell silent. Hearing these words, seeing the expression of firm determination in the eyes of the emperor, Michaud - quoique etranger, mais Russe de c? Ur et d "ame - felt himself at this solemn moment - entousiasme par tout ce qu "il venait d" entendre [although a foreigner, but Russian at heart ... feelings and feelings of the Russian people, whom he considered himself authorized.
- Sire! - he said. - Votre Majeste signe dans ce moment la gloire de la nation et le salut de l "Europe! [Sovereign! Your Majesty is signing at this moment the glory of the people and the salvation of Europe!]
The Emperor, bowing his head, dismissed Michaud.

While Russia was half-conquered, and the inhabitants of Moscow fled to distant provinces, and the militia rose up to defend the fatherland after the militia, it involuntarily seems to us, who did not live at that time, that all Russian people, young and old, were busy only with the fact that to sacrifice oneself, to save the fatherland or to cry over its destruction. The stories, descriptions of that time, all, without exception, speak only of self-sacrifice, love for the fatherland, despair, grief and heroism of Russians. In reality, this was not the case. It seems to us that this is so only because we see from the past one common historical interest of that time and do not see all those personal, human interests that people of that time had. And yet, in reality, those personal interests of the present are to such an extent more significant than general interests that because of them a common interest is never felt (not even noticeable). Most of the people of that time did not pay any attention to the general course of affairs, but were guided only by the personal interests of the present. And these people were the most useful figures of that time.
Those who tried to understand the general course of affairs and, with self-sacrifice and heroism, wanted to participate in it, were the most useless members of society; they saw everything inside out, and everything that they did for good turned out to be useless nonsense, like the regiments of Pierre and Mamonov, who plundered Russian villages, like lint plucked by ladies and never reached the wounded, etc. Even those who, loving to be clever and express their feelings, they talked about the present situation in Russia, unwittingly bore in their speeches either pretense and lies, or useless condemnation and anger at people accused of what no one could be to blame. In historical events, the prohibition of eating the fruit of the tree of knowledge is most obvious. Only one unconscious activity bears fruit, and a person playing a role in a historical event never understands its meaning. If he tries to understand him, he is amazed at its sterility.
The significance of the event taking place in Russia at that time was the more imperceptible, the closer was the participation of a person in it. In St. Petersburg and provincial cities far from Moscow, ladies and men in militia uniforms mourned Russia and the capital and talked about self-sacrifice, etc .; but in the army that was retreating beyond Moscow, they hardly spoke or thought about Moscow, and, looking at its conflagration, no one swore to take revenge on the French, but thought about the next third of the salary, about the next camp, about Matryoshka shopkeeper and the like ...
Nikolai Rostov, without any goal of self-sacrifice, and by chance, since the war caught him in the service, took a close and long-term participation in the defense of the fatherland, and therefore, without despair and gloomy conclusions, he looked at what was happening then in Russia. If they asked him what he thinks about the current situation in Russia, he would say that he has nothing to think about, that there are Kutuzov and others for that, and that he heard that regiments are being completed, and that it must be that they will fight for a long time. , and that under the present circumstances it is not surprising for him to get a regiment in two years.
By the fact that he looked at the matter in this way, he not only without regret that he was losing participation in the last struggle, received the news of his appointment on a business trip for repairs for the division in Voronezh, but also with the greatest pleasure, which he did not hide and which his comrades understood very well.
A few days before the Battle of Borodino, Nikolai received money, papers and, having sent a hussar ahead, went to Voronezh by post.
Only those who have experienced this, that is, spent several months without ceasing in the atmosphere of a military, combat life, can understand the pleasure that Nikolai felt when he got out of the area to which the troops reached with their forages, deliveries of provisions, and hospitals; when he, without soldiers, wagons, dirty traces of the presence of the camp, saw villages with peasants and women, landowners' houses, fields with grazing cattle, station houses with sleeping caretakers. He felt such joy as if he had seen it all for the first time. In particular, what had surprised and delighted him for a long time were women, young, healthy, each of whom did not have a dozen courting officers, and women who were glad and flattered that the passing officer was joking with them.
In the most cheerful mood, Nikolai arrived at a hotel in Voronezh at night, ordered everything that he had been deprived of in the army for a long time, and the next day, having cleanly shaved and wearing a dress uniform that had not been worn for a long time, he went to report to his superiors.
The head of the militia was a state general, an old man who apparently amused himself with his military rank and rank. He angrily (thinking that this was a military quality) received Nicholas and significantly, as if having the right to do so and as if discussing the general course of the matter, approving and not approving, questioned him. Nikolai was so cheerful that he was only amused by it.

military-political union of first five and then seven provinces (Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Geldern, Overijssel, Friesland, Groningen) North. Netherlands, concluded on 23 January. 1579 in Utrecht, both against the attempts of Spain to restore its dominion in the Netherlands, which was actually lost during the Dutch bourgeois revolution of the 16th century, and against internal. feudal-catholic. reactions. W. at. preceded by the conclusion of the Arras Union of the South. provinces. Articles by W. u. provided for the joint conduct of the revolution. wars against Spain to the victorious end, indissolubility of the alliance, the conduct of a common ex. politics, the creation of a common army, a single monetary system. Without formally announcing the deposition of Philip II, W. at. at the same time, it did not leave room for real queens. authorities, provided for a federal political. a device with great autonomy for the provinces in their internal. cases, including the decision of religions. question. To W. at. also joined the cities of Flanders (Ghent, Ypres, Bruges with the region), Brabant (Antwerp, Breda, Lear). Conclusion W. at. laid the foundation for an independent state. existence of the Republic of the United Provinces, polit. device cut U. at. determined up to 1795. Lit .: Sneller Z. W., Unie van Utrecht en plakkaat van verlatinge, Rotterdam, 1929; Fruin R. J., Colenbrander H. T., Geschiedenis der Stantsinstellingen in Nederland tot den val der Republik, 2 dor., ´s-Gravenhage, 1922. A. H. Chistozvonov. Moscow.

The current version of the page has not yet been checked

The current version of the page has not yet been reviewed by experienced contributors and may differ significantly from the one reviewed on March 29, 2018; checks are required.

It follows from the text of the document that it was more military in nature than political. In view of the systematic attacks by Spanish troops on Dutch cities and settlements, representatives of many provinces decided to unite in a military bloc to jointly confront the threat. The provincial statesmen, deputies and judges developed a legal document that effectively prevented the secession from the Holy Roman Empire for other provinces. They did not leave aside the issues of an economic and religious nature, the regulation of which was directly spelled out in the articles of the agreement. At the moment, the document is in the public domain, in the amount of 109 scanned pages, which are stored in the National Archives of the city of The Hague. The parties who signed the contract:

None of the above provinces, cities or their members may form any confederations or alliances with any neighboring rulers or countries, without the consent of the United Provinces and allies.

Regarding the matter of religion, the provinces of Holland and Zeeland act according to their own discretion, and in other provinces this union must adhere to the rules established in the religious world, drawn up by Archduke Matthias, the governor and captain general of these countries, taking into account the recommendations of the Council of State and the States General. or to establish such general or special rules on this matter, which will be most suitable for the peace and well-being of provinces, cities and individuals, the safety of property and the rights of every person, be it a clergyman or layman. No other province should be allowed to interfere or create difficulties so that every person remains free in his religion and no one can be persecuted or persecuted because of his religion, as stipulated in the Ghent pacification.

In the same way, the provisions must be adopted by the civil guards, fraternities and legal entities in any cities and places included in this Union.

The territories according to the Arras Union are shown in blue, the territories according to the Utrecht Union are shown in orange, the territories that later joined the Utrecht Union are displayed in light orange.

As it became clear after the Ghent Agreement, in which almost all the Dutch provinces pledged to stand up for each other with life and property and to expel the Spaniards and other foreigners with their supporters from these provinces, these Spaniards, led by don Juan of Austria and their other leaders and commanders , used all means and constantly made attempts to bring the named provinces as a whole and in parts to subordination, tyrannical rule and slavery not so much with weapons as with intrigues, divide these provinces and dismember them, bring to zero and rupture the alliance concluded by the aforementioned agreement, for a perfect death and devastation of the above-named lands and provinces. (...) As a result, the inhabitants of the principality of Geldern and the county of Zutfsn and the inhabitants of the provinces and lands of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht and Friesland between the rivers Ems and Vanvers considered it prudent especially and closer to enter into an alliance with each other not in order to separate from the general alliance concluded by the Gsnt Agreement, but in order to strengthen it and protect ourselves from any difficulties that may arise in it as a result of any intrigues, encroachments or violence of enemies, in order to know how and how they should behave in similar circumstances and have the ability to defend against hostile forces. Although the general union and the Ghent pasification remain in force, in order to announce the separation of the aforementioned provinces and separate lands, the authorized deputies of these provinces established and approved the following clauses and articles, and in any case they wish to secede from the Holy Roman Empire in this way. The named provinces will be united and bound by an alliance with each other and all together and will always help each other in every way and way, as if they were one province; they will never have the right to secede, allow them to secede or cede their possession by will, exchange, sale, peace treaty, marriage contract or in any other way. All this, however, without prejudice to any of the individual provinces, fiefs and their inhabitants, as well as to their special and private privileges, liberties, privileges, laws, statutes, good old fashion, customs and any other nor was it right, in which they [the provinces] will not only not do any harm, obstacle or hindrance to each other, but rather will help, support and strengthen in this by all fair and possible means and even, if necessary, life and property, and also to defend, however and wherever, against everyone and everyone who wishes to encroach on them or take possession of them. It goes without saying that if any of the above provinces, fiefs or cities belonging to the union has or will have in relation to other provinces any question concerning private and special privileges, liberties, benefits, laws, statutes, good old haute couture, customs and other rights, then such issues will be resolved by ordinary justice, arbitration or amicable agreement. Also [decreed] that the above-mentioned provinces, according to the agreement and the league, will have to help each other with life, property and blood against any violence that anyone may cause (...) under the banner and pretext of the Catholic religion, in order to introduce and approve it by force of arms (...) or on a true union and confederation; or for any other reason or reason, both in the case when these violence and encroachments will be applied and committed in relation to individual provinces, states, cities and lands dependent on them, and in relation to them in general. Also [decreed] that without the general unanimous council and consent of the aforementioned provinces, no agreement, no peace treaty will be concluded, no war will be started, no taxes and taxes relating to the entire union will be withdrawn; but other matters pertaining to the confederation, or matters depending on these questions, will be governed, discussed and decided by a majority of the votes of the provinces making up that confederation; these votes will be cast or assembled in the manner usually observed in the general meeting of states, provided that this is decided by the general council of allies. It is decided forever that if the provinces are not in a position to come to terms with each other in matters relating to the existence of the state, peace, war or tax, then any disagreement in opinions will be transferred and presented to the future stadtholders of the named provinces, who will come to an agreement or decide the case fairly ... It was decided that the aforementioned provinces will have to agree with each other regarding the minting of the coin, that is, regarding the circulation of money, which, according to the instructions, will be done immediately, and one province will not be able to change the coin without the consent of the others. As regards religion, the people of Holland and Zeelander will hold their own; the rest of the provinces of the union will be guided by the articles of the religious peace already worked out by Archduke Matthew, the governor and chief commander of all these lands, and his council with the consent of the States General; regarding this, they, in general and in particular, will establish all the rules that they deem to promote the good and justice of the provinces and lands and all clergy and secular persons, without any obstacles, so that each person is free in his religion and that no one tolerates any misfortunes because of their religion, according to the Ghent Agreement. Published in: Reader on the history of the Middle Ages / Ed. N.P. Gratsianskiy and S.D. T. IIG M., 1950.S. 242-246.